Spectroscopies
Circular Dichroism (CD) Spectroscopy
CD spectroscopy measures differential absorption of left and right circularly polarized light. It is essential for studying protein secondary structure and chiral molecules.
ESR/EPR Spectroscopy
Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) or Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) spectroscopy detects unpaired electrons in radicals and transition metal complexes.
Fluorescence Spectroscopy
Fluorescence spectroscopy measures emission from excited states. It is highly sensitive and used for studying molecular interactions, sensing, and imaging.
IR Spectroscopy
Infrared (IR) spectroscopy identifies functional groups by measuring vibrational frequencies. It is quick, non-destructive, and provides diagnostic information about functional groups.
Mass Spectrometry
Mass spectrometry determines molecular weight and provides structural information through fragmentation patterns. ESI, MALDI, and EI are common ionization methods.
Mössbauer Spectroscopy
Mössbauer spectroscopy probes nuclear energy levels in specific isotopes (especially ⁵⁷Fe). It is used for characterizing iron-containing compounds and materials.
Neutron Diffraction
Neutron diffraction locates light atoms (especially hydrogen) in crystal structures, complementing X-ray crystallography. It is sensitive to magnetic ordering.
NMR Spectroscopy
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is the most powerful tool for determining the structure of organic molecules. ¹H and ¹³C NMR are essential for all organic chemists.
Photoelectron Spectroscopy (PES)
PES measures the energy of electrons ejected from molecules, providing information about electronic structure and orbital energies.
Raman Spectroscopy
Raman spectroscopy measures inelastic scattering of light, providing complementary information to IR spectroscopy. It is particularly useful for studying symmetric vibrations.
UV-Vis Spectroscopy
UV-Visible spectroscopy measures electronic transitions in conjugated systems. It is useful for determining conjugation length, aromaticity, and quantifying colored compounds.
X-ray Crystallography
X-ray crystallography determines the three-dimensional structure of molecules by analyzing diffraction patterns from single crystals. It provides unambiguous structural information.